Table 2 Consequences of bilingualism for speech perception and production
From: Consequences of multilingualism for neural architecture
Type | Region | Effect | Task | Study | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACC | Functional | ACC/SMA | Lower > higher proficiency (activation associated with reading) | Single word reading | Meschyan and Hernandez [149] |
Frontal cortex/gyrus | Functional | Mono ≠ bi (N1 amplitude; largest at word onset, mono only) | Speech perception | Astheimer et al. [108] | |
Mono ≠ bi (P2 positivity in response to language change, bi only; P2 positivity greater for matching than mismatching stimuli, bi only) | Picture-word relatedness (matching vs. mismatching) | Kuipers and Thierry [105] | |||
L IFC | Bi > mono (activation) | Speech perception | Petitto et al. [124] | ||
Structural | R DLPFC | Simultaneous > sequential bilinguals (gray matter) | |||
MFG/IFG | Interpreters > control (cortical thickness after training). interpreters ≠ control (+ correlation MFG cortical thickness/effort; interpreters only) | Proficiency test | Mårtensson et al. [139] | ||
L MFG/L IFG | Unbalanced > balanced (cortical thickness); unbalanced ≠ balanced (− correlation foreign accent/MFG surface area) | Proficiency test | Archila-Suerte et al. [142] | ||
Temporal cortex/gyrus | Structural | L STG | Unbalanced > balanced (cortical thickness); unbalanced ≠ balanced (− correlation foreign accent/STS surface area) | Proficiency test | Archila-Suerte et al. [142] |
STG | Interpreters > control (cortical thickness after training). interpreters ≠ control (+ correlation STG cortical thickness/proficiency; interpreters only) | Proficiency test | Mårtensson et al. [139] | ||
HG | Bi > mono (HG volume, gray matter) | Ressel et al. [136] | |||
Parietal cortex/gyrus | Structural | R IPL | Interpreters < control (white matter) | Elmer et al. [87] | |
Occipital cortex/gyrus | Structural | L MOG/R LOC | Simultaneous > sequential bilinguals (gray matter) | ||
Subcortical | Functional | Brainstem | Bi > mono (ABR consistency); mono ≠ bi (+ correlation: ABR/selective attention, bi only) | Sustained selective attention/speech perception | Krizman et al. [111] |
Brainstem | Bi > mono (ABR consistency); mono ≠ bi (+ correlation: ABR/attentional control and proficiency, bi only) | Attentional control/speech perception | Krizman et al. [110] | ||
Brainstem | Bi > mono (ABR consistency) | Speech perception | Krizman et al. [113] | ||
Brainstem | Bi > mono (FFR) | Speech perception | Skoe et al. [115] | ||
Brainstem | Bi > mono (FFR) | Speech perception | Maggu et al. [114] | ||
Brainstem | Simultaneous > sequential bilinguals (ABR consistency; + correlation bilingual experience/ABR) | Speech perception | Krizman et al. [112] | ||
L putamen | L3 > L2 (activation associated with picture naming) | Picture naming | Abutalebi et al. [41] | ||
Putamen | Greater > lower proficiency (activation) | Single word reading | Meschyan and Hernandez [149] | ||
Structural | Putamen, thalamus, R CN, L globus pallidus | Bi > mono (gray matter expansion) | Burgaleta et al. [145] | ||
putamen | Balanced > unbalanced (volume) | Proficiency test | Archila-Suerte et al. [142] | ||
L putamen | Simultaneous > sequential bilinguals (gray matter); simultaneous ≠ sequential bilinguals (+ correlation: gray matter/native-like accent; sequential only). | ||||
L putamen | Bi > mono (gray matter); bi ≠ mono (+ correlation: gray matter/L3 proficiency; bi only) | Picture naming | Abutalebi et al. [41] | ||
R Hip | Interpreters > control (volume after training). interpreters ≠ control (+ correlation Hip volume/proficiency; interpreters only) | Proficiency test | Mårtensson et al. [139] | ||
Upper corticospinal tract, R CN | Interpreters < control (white matter) | Elmer et al. [144] | |||
Multiple/other | Functional | Bi > mono (ERP amplitude) | Selective attention to tones | Rämä et al. [109] | |
Bi > mono (early MEG activity showing more acoustic processing of speech stimuli) | Oddball paradigm (sound perception) | Ferjan Ramírez et al. [125] | |||
Bi > mono (bilinguals faster at differentiating languages, as indicated by ERP) | Oddball paradigm (picture-word pairs) | Kuipers and Thierry [106] | |||
Mono ≠ bi (early ERP positivity for semantically matching pictures/words, bi only) | Oddball paradigm (picture-word pairs) | Kuipers and Thierry [107] | |||
IFG, DLPFC, IPL, cerebellum | Early bi > late bi (resting functional connectivity); + correlation (AoA and connectivity between L/R IFG for late bi) | Speech production task | |||
semantic module (seed: L SMG); phonological module (seed: L IFGpt) | Early bi > late bi (resting functional connectivity in both modules) | Liu et al. [133] | |||
Structural | CC, IFOF, uncinate fasciculi (UF), SLF | Bi > mono (white matter) | Pliatsikas et al. [91] | ||
SLF, L IFOF, L UF | + Correlation (L2 listening experience and white matter in UF and anterior IFOF); + correlation (L2 speaking experience and white matter in posterior SLF and IFOF); bi only; mono > bi (white matter) | Kuhl et al. [100] | |||
CC, cingulum, AF, L IFOF | Bi > mono (white matter); + correlation (immersion time and white matter in all but cingulum; bi only) | Rahmani et al. [153] | |||
ILF, CC, AF | + Correlation (AoA with L IFL, anterior CC, AF); + correlation (proficiency with L ILF, R AF, forceps minor of CC) | Picture-word matching | Nichols and Joanisse [152] | ||
AF | Early bi > late bi (white matter) | Hämäläinen et al. [154] | |||
CC, L anterior insula | Interpreters < control (white matter) | Elmer et al. [144] |